Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Translation Strategies for Mediation

Foreword

In an increasingly globalized world, the ability to effectively mediate between cultures through translation and interpreting is more critical than ever. The objective of this research series is to facilitate the integration of theoretical frameworks with practical applications in cultural mediation. Additionally, it seeks to enhance comprehension of the function of cultural mediation in translation and interpreting, offering both theoretical insights and practical strategies to facilitate intercultural communication in global contexts.

This series will examine the multifaceted roles of cultural mediators, dissecting how they can overcome intercultural challenges and enhance communication in multilingual contexts. By delving into both the theoretical underpinnings and real-world applications, the series will provide readers, including students, practicing professionals, and scholars, with the essential tools and knowledge to understand and implement effective cultural mediation strategies. A mixed-method approach will be employed, with theoretical discussions accompanied by case studies drawn from real-world translation scenarios. This will ensure that each subtopic is supported by examples of contemporary practice, thereby illustrating the application of theories in tangible settings. Furthermore, this series will add to the existing body of knowledge by synthesizing current theories and practices in cultural mediation while offering new insights into its application in professional translation and interpreting contexts. The goal is not only to inform but also to inspire a deeper appreciation of the intricacies involved in translation and interpreting, highlighting the vital role of cultural mediation in fostering global understanding and cooperation. Various studies related to bilingualism in cultural mediation will complement the content of this series, investigating its impact on the process, its necessity, and the role of culture in translation. It is the combination of theoretical analysis and case studies, augmented by illustrative examples, that renders this series distinctive.

The series is divided into the following chapters:

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Bilingualism in Intercultural Mediation

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Mediation Translation

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Translation Strategies for Mediation

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Skopos Theory in Translation

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Interpreters vs Cultural Mediators

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Cultural Mediation in Crisis Translation

  
  

Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Translation Strategies for Mediation

Is it possible that bilingualism is considered a translation strategy, as well as a mediation strategy? Is mediation a translation strategy or translation a mediation strategy? Can either discipline be a possible strategy for the other? What are the translation strategies currently used during mediation processes? These are some of the questions we will answer throughout this article.

According to the work “Mediation,” which corresponds to the MIME European Commission project (Mobility and Inclusion in Multilingual Europe, 2014-2018), there are four strategies that can be employed in an intercultural event: translation, interpreting, the use of a lingua franca and intercomprehension. On the one hand, translation is an intercultural strategy, and on the other hand, mediation, if between different cultures and languages, often requires intercultural competencies and, therefore, translation skills. For this reason, this part of the series is mainly focused on translation strategies.

This piece will commence with the definition of the four intercultural strategies previously mentioned and their role throughout a mediation process between different languages. Subsequently, the concept of translation strategy will be defined and its types will be enumerated and described. Afterward, a reflection on the role of bilingualism as a translation strategy will be undertaken, and lastly, all the previously briefly introduced questions will be answered.

Figure 1: Example of Translation Process.

Intercultural Strategies and Mediation

First of all, a meaning needs to be added to the concept of "strategy" within the context of this series of articles. It is imperative to note that the word “strategy” does not equate to the term “tactic”, which represents a decision aimed at attaining a favorable long-term result. In this series, and considering the work of Pym (2018), the concept of “mediation choice” could be used for the same purpose as the “strategy” concept. Either of the two are alternatives that individuals can select. Therefore, if the option “strategy" is used, it refers to an active choice (Pym, 2018, p.20).

All the strategies mentioned above are in fact mediation options. An additional professional distinction is occasionally drawn between “interpreting,” defined as the precise oral reproduction of a speech, and “mediation” as a more flexible method of clarifying what was communicated or what needs to be accomplished. Within the context of this series, interpreting also constitutes a form of mediation. The difference, when choosing one discipline or the other, lies in the presence of an individual who facilitates cross-language communication; namely an interpreter or a mediator.

The use of a "lingua franca" represents an additional intercultural strategy that can be used in mediation processes. This entails the employment of a language that is not the initial example of the communicators, for instance, English. “Intercomprehension”, the last strategy, refers to cases where the languages used in a bilingual conversation are not the native language of either participant. There is a need to place more emphasis on the function of "receptive" understanding, which occurs when the speaker comprehends the other person’s language but typically does not use it in speech. Essentially, all mediation strategies serve as methods through which levels of inclusion and mobility are attained simultaneously (Pym, 2018). That is precisely what translation, interpreting, the use of lingua franca, and intercomprehension achieve.

Figure 2: Definition of Translation in the Dictionary.

The Concept of Strategy in Translation

For this piece, and the remainder of the articles in this series, the Liddicoat (2016) framework has been taken as a reference in terms of intercultural mediation. This author holds the conviction that translation represents a form of intercultural communication. According to the author, research on the translator's role as an intercultural mediator is significant for translation studies. Therefore, the practice of intercultural mediation, manifested through translation, needs to be examined due to its inherent nature as an interpretive act carried out by mediators, where specific meanings are conveyed from one language to others.

In this context, what meaning should be given to the concept of strategy in translation? Pierre Bourdieu (1993) defines “strategy” as a particular orientation resulting from unconscious tendencies within a practice. He asserts that every action taken by a translator generally aligns with what he terms the "feel for the game" (Bourdieu, 1993, p.53). According to Bourdieu (1993), cultural capital comprises a collection of intellectual abilities and practical skills that can be acquired. In literary translation, a translator has expertise in both the source and target languages, as well as an awareness of the socio-cultural context inherent to those languages. Additionally, a translator must demonstrate the ability to translate particular texts that belong to different literary genres. A cultural mediator must also possess all of those skills.

In her research, Xu (2012) states that some translators employ particular approaches in their literary translations, like the relevance of paratextual elements in translated works, such as translator’s notes, in which translators give their invisible position and allow their voice to be heard. Paratextual elements are an important part of the translator's prologue, which plays a crucial role in enhancing the reader’s comprehension of the translated text and helps to promote the translator’s presence in relation to the work being translated.

Zahrawi’s research (2018) reveals that some translators employ a strategy to negotiate meaning while preserving the cultural identity of the source text in the target text. There are two strategies that literary translators often use in their work: the foreignization and the domestication. The goal of domestication is to ensure a positive reception among target readers, whereas the foreignization approach seeks to preserve the cultural identity of the source text's originality. Zahrawi’s research (2018) demonstrates that every translation employs a distinct strategy that possesses a distinct advantage. In some cases, translators prioritize domestication to facilitate reader comprehension, while in others, they employ the foreignization strategy to preserve the cultural identity of the source text. This has led experts to assume that the approach of a translator can be analyzed to comprehend the translator’s function. However, it is equally, if not more, important to acknowledge that translators serve not only as cultural intermediaries but also as literary advocates, who champion the value of the translated work.

Figure 3: Diversity of languages in Communication.

Translation Strategies as Translation Techniques and Methods: Introduction to all Types

In this series, no distinction is made between possible translation strategies and techniques, since all of them could be used in intercultural mediation processes, whether oral or written. The classification proposed by Molina and Hurtado (2002) is taken as a reference. On occasions, more than one technique is used to solve a translation conflict, as Newmark (1988) explains in his work. Newmark recognizes that translators often need to combine techniques to achieve the best result based on the specificities of the source text, the cultural and linguistic conditions, and the purpose of the translation. A translation conflict can arise when a single technique is not sufficient to convey the meaning or intent of the original text. For instance, if a specific cultural concept does not have a direct translation, the translator may have to resort to a technique such as adaptation to replace a cultural element with one that is more understandable to the target audience. At the same time, it may be necessary to use an explanation or note to clarify some important details that cannot be translated literally. Consequently, by combining techniques, the translator can better adapt to the different types of problems that may arise in translation, improving both comprehensibility and fidelity to the original text.

The first translation strategy, according to Molina and Hurtado (2002) is known as adaptation. In this technique, a cultural term is replaced by another one that is more common or comparable in its function in the receiving culture. Linguistic amplification, on the other hand, adds words even if there is not a grammatical or normative need, oppositely to reduction, which suppresses some elements or information from the target text in the original text, either completely or part of its informative load. A third strategy is pure amplification, which involves the introduction of details not formulated in the original text, such as footnotes. The calque, a technique that is increasingly used, literally translates a foreign phrase that portrays a concept or expression that is new to the target culture, and it can be lexical and structural. The compensation introduces into another part of the target text an element of information or stylistic effect that could not be reflected in the same place where it appears in the original text. Linguistic comprehension synthesizes words without there being a grammatical or normative need. The discourse creation establishes an equivalence that is totally unpredictable when considered out of context. This phenomenon is frequently observed in the translation of film and novel titles. The description replaces a term or expression with a description of its form or function. The coined equivalent uses a term or expression recognized as an equivalent in the target language. Generalization uses a more general or neutral term, opposite to particularization, which uses a more precise or concrete term.

Other strategies, such as modulation, involve altering the point of view, focus, or category of thought in relation to the formulation of the original text. Borrowing integrates a word or expression from another language as is. In pure borrowing, the foreign word is maintained without any change. Like the calque, the borrowing has a diachronic dimension. When it is normalized in the target language, sometimes even its spelling ceases to be so. In instances where the pair of languages ​​in question have different writing systems as graphic support, logically, it will be shown as a transcription, although the technique remains a borrowing. Substitution changes linguistic elements for paralinguistic ones or vice versa, primarily employed in the context of interpretation. Literal translation translates a phrase or expression word for word, excluding individual words. Transposition changes a grammatical category and, finally, pragmatic variation changes linguistic or paralinguistic elements that affect aspects of linguistic variation: changes in textual tone, style, social dialect, and geographic dialect, such as the introduction or changes of dialectal markers for the characterization of characters in theatrical translation.

For instance, adaption is a strategy that is often employed in mediation. Differences in formalities such as forms of greeting and respect can be adapted depending on the culture. In Japanese, for example, the second person singular "you" is not commonly used, but rather the person's name is said directly. In Spain, we don't often use the word "usted", only as a respectful way to communicate with older people. In certain cultures, such as some countries from South America, not addressing someone as "usted" could result in a lack of respect. Another example that mediators use during mediation processes is the description or explanation. In a mediation context, employing the explanation strategy may be essential when using technical or cultural terms that do not have a direct equivalent in the target language, such as the word "settlement", which does not have an exact equivalent in the legal field in the Spanish language. When providing an explanation, the mediator can ensure that all parties involved correctly understand what is being discussed even if there is not an exact translation of the term. And finally, another example widely used in mediation is the transposition. In English, the passive form is frequently used in both written and oral contexts. However, in Spanish, its use is less common. Therefore, If we are translating a text from a language that makes extensive use of the passive (for example, English) to a language that uses it less (such as Spanish or Catalan), transposition can be a useful strategy that maintains the same meaning. For example, the following sentence in English "the book was written by X author" could be replaced with the following sentence in Spanish "X author wrote the book". It is a technique that makes it easier to achieve a more natural result in the target language.

Figure 4: Representation of Multilingual Mediation Process.

These are the most commonly used translation techniques that can also be employed during mediation processes, whether written or oral. However, two other translation strategies were mentioned in the previous section: domestication and foreignization. According to Venuti, “strategies of translation involve the basic tasks of choosing the foreign text to be translated and developing a method to translate it” (2001, p. 1). He states that these tasks are commonly defined by cultural, economic, and political factors. If the concepts “translation methods, techniques or strategies” were deeply analyzed and differentiated, other classifications would be used in this piece. However, in this series, all these concepts are grouped together and no great distinction is made between them because all of them can cause changes in the process of cultural mediation. There is indeed a correlation between Molina and Hurtado's translation techniques and the categories of domestication and foreignization from Venuti since the previously mentioned translation techniques can be also classified into the categories of domestication and foreignization. The objective is the same and that is what is relevant in this article, that they achieve the same results for both translations and mediations. Venuti (2001) states that a translation project might align with the prevailing values in the target language culture, adopting a conservative and overtly assimilationist strategy towards the foreign text, adapting it to reinforce local standards, publishing trends, and political affiliations. Conversely, a translation initiative might oppose and seek to challenge the mainstream by utilizing the peripheral, reinstating foreign works omitted by local standards, rediscovering overlooked values like antiquated texts and translation techniques, and fostering new ones. Strategies for creating translations naturally arise in reaction to local cultural contexts. However, some are intentionally domesticating in their approach to the foreign text, whereas others may be characterized as foreignizing, driven by a desire to maintain linguistic and cultural distinctions by straying from dominant domestic norms.

Zhuo determines that the two approaches mutually enhance and encompass one another dialectically (2022, p. 10). From the reader's perspective, foreignization can fulfill the psychological needs of the reader while engaging with foreign literature. Domestication assists TT readers in experiencing the same emotions as original readers. In terms of cultural exchanges, foreignization better facilitates a deeper understanding among different ethnic groups. Domestication, in contrast, resolves conflicts between cultures, creates a wider opportunity for translators to comprehend the source language more effectively, and maximizes the impact of cross-cultural communication. Overall, network buzzwords can be characterized as straightforward and innovative. They are inventive, which might not align with their manner of expression. Translating these terms is increasingly challenging. Employing domestication or foreignization begins to deceive individuals. Translators ought not to be limited by these phrases; the goal of translation is to bridge the gaps between nations and allow more individuals to learn about the culture to enhance cultural interactions. When translating, individuals should primarily think about the strategy of domestication, which focuses on conveying the same meaning. This allows individuals to comprehend these network buzzwords. Foreignization and domestication are two approaches employed in translation. When translating, individuals can either merge them or select one. They can be merged but not opposed. Translators ought to adhere to the fundamental translation principle that prioritizes "foreignization as primary and domestication as secondary" when translating internet buzzwords. It is fundamental to not overemphasize their differences alone, but rather recognize their identity and utilize the most suitable translation strategies based on the particular translation objectives.

Figure 5: Multicultural Communication Representation.

The Role of Bilingualism in Translation Strategies

Paul A. Kolers (1973) explores the connection between bilingualism and translation in his article "Translation and Bilingualism", focusing on the lexical level of translation and the role of bilingualism. He examines how bilingual individuals process language and emphasizes the importance of human factors in translation, especially compared to machine translation. Kolers argues that existing translation machines are inadequate because languages have complex structures and words often have multiple meanings that depend on context. Catford (1965) adds to this discussion by stating that translation theory should stem from a theory of meaning, which can be analyzed at different levels. He believes that translation involves replacing text in one language with equivalent text in another, though the concept of "equivalence" is complicated and context-dependent. He emphasizes that equivalent meanings may only be fully captured at the sentence level.

Furthermore, Kolers (1973) highlights that bilinguals often interpret words differently from dictionary definitions. He suggests that context significantly influences meaning due to various cognitive and emotional conditions. For instance, while words for objects may translate similarly, terms associated with ethics, politics, or emotions vary greatly between cultures. This difference in meaning illustrates why translating between culturally distant languages can be challenging, as bilinguals often adjust meanings according to cultural contexts. Bilinguals from different backgrounds may excel in different languages based on the similarities between them. The author further notes that word-for-word translations often fall short, as even closely related languages have unique idioms and structures.

Figure 6: Preparation for Language Learning.

According to Lambert (1971), translators function as unique listeners, tasked to capture details and convey messages accurately, which arises from their bilingual abilities. However, there are instances where translators multitask, leading to questions about their attention during interpretation. Lambert also differentiates between "compound bilinguals", who learn both languages simultaneously, and "coordinate bilinguals", who acquire them in separate contexts, affecting their language processing and translation styles. In this regard, Lambert argues that semantic changes in a word for compound bilinguals influence the meanings of synonyms, while coordinate bilinguals do not make such connections. This highlights the unique cognitive processes of different types of bilinguals, as their language acquisition shapes their translation approaches.

The question of whether translation is an innate skill has been explored by scholars like Brian Harris. He claims that translation is a natural skill found in all bilingual children, who engage in "natural translation" without formal training. Harris asserts that translating develops alongside bilingualism, while other scholars argue that differing translation abilities may arise from individual language processing capacities rather than just age or formal education. Harris and Sherwood (1978) outline stages of natural translation that children undergo, but critics note that relying heavily on age may oversimplify the complexity of language acquisition and translation abilities. Additionally, they highlight that as children grow, their translations become more socially functional, differing from spontaneous and non-voluntary translations in younger learners. Ultimately, while all bilingual children can translate, differences in their techniques may stem from individual characteristics, language knowledge, or other influencing factors. Harris and Sherwood link variations in translating to age and increased proficiency, while Toury (1995) suggests that the interlingual capacity, or the ability to transfer ideas, is what truly differentiates individuals in their translating abilities.

Figure 7: Conceptual/Visual Map of Language Learning.

On one hand Harris and Sherwood (1978) discuss the term "innate" in psycholinguistics, noting two meanings. The first sense pertains to a child's natural ability to learn language from their environment. The second sense refers to an inherited theory that allows quicker and more grammatical speech than environmental exposure alone can explain.

On the other hand, Toury (1995) acknowledges a predisposition for translating but believes it oversimplifies the relationship between translation and bilingualism. He argues that factors like personality and environment are also important and outlines phases of natural translation that show how translation skills evolve over time, suggesting that practice may lead to less naturalness in translation. Furthermore, the author claims that "natural translation" might just mean "bilingual" and introduces the idea of a "native translator," emphasizing the social and cultural aspects of translation. He highlights the role of "environmental feedback" in translation as a communicative act, where feedback influences the translation process from various sources, including commissioners and recipients. He notes that this feedback creates norms affecting the relationship between the source text and the translated text. Toury explains "sanctions" that reward or penalize a translator based on their behavior, guiding them to adjust their translations over time in response to this feedback. He asserts that there is no universal standard for translation, as norms vary across cultures. Toury discusses the concepts of "generalization" and "specialization" in translation strategies. As translators encounter different norms, their adaptability can increase; however, if they become too specialized, their flexibility may decrease. He contrasts "natural translation" with the more development-focused idea of "native translator", which aligns more closely with the process of becoming a recognized translator.

Finally, Malakoff and Hakuta (1991) identify two levels of language manipulation required for translation: conveying meaning and producing text in the target language. They outline four phases that are designed to describe the mental steps that a bilingual speaker might go through when translating between languages. These phases are pre-production, production or linguistic processing, post-production or editing, and revision or review and refinement. These authors emphasize that while natural translation involves understanding and reformulating the message, it often lacks grammatical correctness. Consequently, are bilingualism or natural translation sufficient for translation proficiency? This question will lead to the following conclusion.

Figure 8: Consecutive Interpreting Example.

Conclusion: Translation Strategies as Mediation Strategies

Translation strategies are not the only techniques that can be used in intercultural communication, but also interpreting, the use of lingua franca, machine translation, language learning, intercomprehension, and even bilingualism, are part of the intercultural competencies required to mediate or translate.

In the context of teaching foreign languages, mediation activities refer to language tasks wherein the user does not convey their own thoughts but instead serves as an intermediary or mediator for others who are unable to communicate directly, whether in oral or written form. These mediation activities are performed by the mediator employing specific skills and enhancing linguistic processes of understanding and expression, to facilitate mutual understanding among people. Mediation strategies, conversely, are communication tools that assist the user in effectively completing the linguistic task at hand. Mediation primarily involves translating or interpreting for speakers of various languages. Occasionally, the mediator condenses or rephrases a text for the audience who, despite being a native or non-native user of the language, fails to grasp the message due to aspects like the language register or specialized terminology in the original material. In contrast to activities focused on expression, comprehension, or interaction, which engage monolingual processes, numerous mediation activities engage bilingual processes.

Activities involving written mediation include precise translation, literary translation, summarization, and paraphrasing, which also belong to the category of translation strategies. To address the challenges encountered during the mediation process, the mediator employs various communicative strategies that assist in producing a new text while retaining the original meaning. During the first planning stage, mediators utilize prior knowledge that they deem relevant and get ready to handle the text: they seek assistance, create a glossary, and assess the needs of the interlocutor. In the process of interpretation, translation, or clarification, mediators engage in two simultaneous processes: they paraphrase in an understandable manner for the recipient what was recently expressed in different words while also focusing on the next segment of the message. In simultaneous interpretation, they create pre-formed segments of dialogue, observe expressions to enhance their vocabulary, and record options and equivalences: these tools conserve their time and focus, which they allocate to the more complex elements of the task. Conversely, the mediator should apply strategies to address any challenges that may emerge: unclear points, disruptions, and language errors from the sender.

In conclusion, for an effective intercultural mediation process to happen, the mediator or translator can use diverse intercultural strategies, such as translation techniques or methods. Being bilingual can contribute to the mediation process providing many intercultural skills necessary for optimal mediation. While foreignization and domestication can become methods to improve translations or mediation processes, all the previously mentioned translation techniques (in this piece also called strategies) can be employed to obtain better results. All in all, bilingualism can be a translation or mediation skill or strategy but not sufficient for a proficient intercultural communication situation, whether a translation, interpretation, or mediation. It is noteworthy that mediation can also become a translation strategy and translation a mediation strategy, signifying that either discipline could serve as a potential strategy for the other.

Bibliographical References

Bourdieu, P. (1993) The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. Columbia University Press, New York.

Catford, J. C. (1965). A linguistic theory of translation. Oxford: Oxford University Press

Harris, B. & Sherwood, B. (1978). Translating as an Innate Skill in Gerver, D. & Sinaiko, H. (Eds.), Language, Interpretation and Communication. New York: Plenum Press. 155-170.

Kardiansyah, M. & Salam, A. (2020). The Translator’s Strategy as a Cultural Mediator in Translating Indonesian Novel into English: A Case Study On “Jatisaba”.

Kolers, P.A. (1973). Translation and Bilingualism in George A.M. (Ed.), Communication, Language, And Meaning, Psychological Perspectives. New York: Basic Books, Inc. Publishers. 280-290.

Lambert, W.E. (1978). Psychological approaches to bilingualism, translation and interpretation in Gerver, D. & Sinaiko, H. (Eds.), Language, Interpretation and Communication. New York: Plenum Press. 131-143.

Liddicoat, A. J. (2016). Translation as intercultural mediation: setting the scene. Perspectives, 24(3), 347–353.

Malakoff, M. & Hakuta,K. (1991). Translation skill and metalinguistic awareness in bilinguals in E. Bialystok (Ed.). Language processing and language awareness by bilingual children. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 141-166.

Molina, L. & Albir, A. (2002). Translation Techniques Revisited: A Dynamic and Functionalist Approach. Meta: Journal des traducteurs. 47.

Newmark, P. (1988). A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall.

Pym, A. (2018). Introduction: Why mediation strategies are important. Language Problems and Language Planning. 42. 255-266.

Thiery, C. (1978). True bilingualism and second-language learning in Gerver, D. & Sinaiko, H. (Eds.), Language, Interpretation and Communication. New York: Plenum Press. 145-153.

Toury, G. (1995). Descriptive Studies and Beyond. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. 241-258.

Venuti, L. (2001). Strategies of Transtation. In M. Baker (ed.), Routìedge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. London & New York: Routìedge, pp. 240-244.

Zahrawi, S. (2018). Maintaining Cultural Identity in Translated Literary Texts: Strategies of Translating Culture-Specific Items in Two Arabic Plays. AWEJ for Translation & Literary Studies, 2-2.

Zhuo, Y. (2022). Translation strategies of Domestication and Foreignization used in Network Catchwords. Advances in Educational Technology and Psychology. Vol. 6: 59-64.

Visual Sources

Figure 1. Pexels. Example of Translation Process (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es

Figure 2. Pexels. Definition of Translation in the Dictionary (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es

Figure 3. Freepik. Diversity of languages in Communication (2024). https://www.freepik.es

Figure 4. Freepik. Representation of Multilingual Mediation Process (2024). https://www.freepik.es

Figure 5. Freepik. Multicultural Communication Representation (2024). https://www.freepik.es

Figure 6. Freepik. Preparation for Language Learning (2024). https://www.freepik.es

Figure 7. Freepik. Conceptual/Visual Map of Language Learning (2024). https://www.freepik.es

Figure 8. Freepik. Consecutive Interpreting Example (2024). https://www.freepik.es