Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Skopos Theory in Translation

Foreword

In an increasingly globalized world, the ability to effectively mediate between cultures through translation and interpreting is more critical than ever. The objective of this research series is to facilitate the integration of theoretical frameworks with practical applications in cultural mediation. Additionally, it seeks to enhance comprehension of the function of cultural mediation in translation and interpreting, offering both theoretical insights and practical strategies to facilitate intercultural communication in global contexts.

This series will examine the multifaceted roles of cultural mediators, dissecting how they can overcome intercultural challenges and enhance communication in multilingual contexts. By delving into both the theoretical underpinnings and real-world applications, the series will provide readers, including students, practicing professionals, and scholars, with the essential tools and knowledge to understand and implement effective cultural mediation strategies. A mixed-method approach will be employed, with theoretical discussions accompanied by case studies drawn from real-world translation scenarios. This will ensure that each subtopic is supported by examples of contemporary practice, thereby illustrating the application of theories in tangible settings. Furthermore, this series will add to the existing body of knowledge by synthesizing current theories and practices in cultural mediation while offering new insights into its application in professional translation and interpreting contexts. The goal is not only to inform but also to inspire a deeper appreciation of the intricacies involved in translation and interpreting, highlighting the vital role of cultural mediation in fostering global understanding and cooperation. Various studies related to bilingualism in cultural mediation will complement the content of this series, investigating its impact on the process, its necessity, and the role of culture in translation. It is the combination of theoretical analysis and case studies, augmented by illustrative examples, that renders this series distinctive.

The series is divided into the following chapters:

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Bilingualism in Intercultural Mediation

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Mediation Translation

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Translation Strategies for Mediation

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Skopos Theory in Translation

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Interpreters vs Cultural Mediators

  
  

• Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Cultural Mediation in Crisis Translation

  
  

Cultural Mediation in Translation Series: Skopos Theory in Translation

Skopos Theory serves as an essential framework to highlight the purpose or "skopos" of a translation as the central influence on translation choices. It was created by Hans J. Vermeer in the late 20th century as a component of the wider translation theories that emphasize functional methods. Skopos Theory positions the translator as a mediator responsible for modifying the text based on the intended purpose or objective of the translation within the target culture. This theory underscores the translator's role as an active mediator, stressing the importance of cultural sensitivity and understanding the translation's final purpose. In today's interconnected world, where communication between cultures is essential, Skopos Theory offers a valuable framework for translation that honors the text's purpose while successfully expressing its meaning across cultural divides.

This chapter is mainly focused on Skopos Theory, its history, purpose and rules, merits, and criticism by mentioning some academic sources on the topic, for instance, Du (2012) and Vermeer (1996). Since this theory is an approach to translation that reflects a general shift from predominantly linguistic and rather formal translation theories to a more functionally and socioculturally oriented concept of translation (Schäfner, 1997), the whole article is focused on this topic, specifically from the perspective of Reiss and Vermeer, although it presents some limitations in literary translation, which will also be discussed and compared with other translation approaches, such as professional and technical translation. Some practical implications can be found in marketing translation, a translation context that involves Skopos Theory's method. In marketing translation, linguistic choices are defined by purpose, a strategy that can be equally used in cultural mediation without necessarily using bilingualism practices. 

Skopos Theory: First Insights

Skopos Theory, developed by Hans Vermeer and others, such as Margret Ammann and Hans Hönig, emphasizes a purpose-driven approach to translation. This approach focuses on the context and intended outcome of the target text. The theory underscores that translation is not simply about transferring linguistic elements from the source text to the target text, rather it is about fulfilling a specific function in the target culture, determined by the client’s needs and the intended audience. The core of Skopos theory is the Skopos rule, which asserts that the translation process should be guided by the purpose or goal (skopos) of the target text, and not by the fidelity to the source text. This forward-looking approach contrasts with traditional translation theories, which often prioritize the translation of the source text itself. Vermeer’s equation IA(Trl) = f(Sk) explains that the translation is shaped by its aim, which is influenced by the requirements and expectations of the target audience (Vermeer, 1996). The theory also addresses the cultural and functional aspects of translation, noting that a translation is both interlingual and intercultural. It transcends language by transferring meaning and context, which are shaped by the skopos of the translation. Reiss and Vermeer’s text classification system identifies three major types: informative, expressive, and operative texts, which respectively correspond to the descriptive, expressive, and appellative functions of language (Vermeer, 1996). These categories are used to ensure functional consistency between source and target texts, although the skopos may lead to different genres being chosen for the target text. A fundamental principle of the theory asserts that the translation process is governed by the skopos of the target text, not necessarily by the genre or characteristics of the source text. This premise challenges the traditional notion that the source text should determine the genre or form of the translation. Instead, the translator, who is considered the expert, determines the most suitable genre and strategies based on the target text’s intended purpose.

Figure 1: Theory Representation.

Criticism of Skopos Theory

Some of the theory's critics argue that it oversimplifies translation by focusing on the functional aspect at the expense of micro-level linguistic choices, such as syntax, style, or lexical accuracy. Some also question the applicability of the theory to literary translation, as literary texts often have more complex and nuanced purposes than non-literary texts. In these cases, critics argue that Skopos Theory might limit the interpretive possibilities of literary works. Despite these critiques, Skopos theory provides a valuable framework for understanding translation as a process of decision-making, wherein the translator’s role is to create a target text that aligns with the defined skopos, rather than simply mirroring the source text. By emphasizing the purpose of translation, the theory challenges the traditional equivalence-based approach and opens up a broader understanding of what constitutes translation across different contexts.

Skopos Theory has faced criticism for focusing on the translation's skopos, potentially neglecting the author's intent, particularly in literary or religious texts. Critics assert that certain creations, particularly in art and literature, are produced without a clearly predetermined intention. This raises questions about the action-oriented essence of Skopos Theory, which presumes that every translation action serves a specific purpose. It is also proposed that not every translation endeavor has a distinct, predetermined objective. If a translator places too much emphasis on purpose, it may restrict the range of translation strategies and interpretations available. In addition, some contend that the fundamental concept of Skopos Theory is overly simplistic and fails to introduce new insights. For instance, Peter Newmark (1996) criticizes the theory by asserting it simply expresses common sense, illustrating this with the example that translating a soap ad differs from translating a hymn. Critics like Koller (1979) contend that Skopos Theory lacks support from empirical studies. Functionalists such as Reiss and Vermeer (1984) assert that translation choices are intended to enhance communication for the audience, yet Koller notes that these assertions are merely speculative in the absence of empirical research. Finally, Skopos Theory extends beyond traditional translation and questions the notion of equivalence in the translation process. Koller describes translation as the conversion of a text from the source language into a text in the target language, establishing an equivalence relationship. Skopos Theory, on the other hand, complicates this notion, blurring the boundaries of translation.

Figure 2: Language Learning in a Classroom.

Equivalence and Skopos: The Skopos Theory in Translation and Cultural Mediation

According to Bassnett (2002), translation is not only a form of communication but also a "continuity" that ensures the survival of a text by becoming a new original in another language. Translation is seen as both inter-cultural and inter-temporal communication. The translator is an active participant who combines theory and practice to create a new text in the target language (TL), considering its cultural background, context, and target audience. This idea parallels foreign language learning, where learners also bridge the gap between their native language (L1) and the foreign language (TL), trying to convey meaning effectively. In translation, the task is to establish a connection between the source language (SL) and TL cultures, ensuring the message is transferred across language barriers and understood by the TL audience. A similar process occurs in the context of EFL (English as foreign language) learning, where learners navigate the disparity between their L1 knowledge and the rules of the TL to convey messages effectively to native speakers. Hatim and Mason emphasize that the translator must ensure coherence, balance, efficiency, and effectiveness in their work, which are crucial for the success of the translation. 

These concepts are also relevant to foreign language learners, who aim to produce coherent and effective spoken or written language. The understanding of equivalence and skopos is vital for both translators and learners, as they aim to convey meaning and achieve effective communication. Equivalence, according to Catford (1965), is the foundation of translation, where the translator replaces SL text with TL text, aiming to produce the same effect on TL readers as the original did on the source audience. Koller (1979) adds that the translator should aim to evoke the same response in the TL audience as the SL author did. EFL learners also aim for equivalence in their communication by imitating native speakers to effectively convey their message. The translator must be aware of different types of equivalence and select the appropriate one based on the translation’s purpose, which is similar to how EFL learners must understand and apply TL rules effectively when speaking or writing.

Skopos theory focuses on the functional aspect of translation, where the translation’s skopos determines the translation strategy. The translator should produce a target text that meets the needs and expectations of the TL audience, considering their cultural background and the text's intended use. Audience design, a key aspect of skopos, helps determine the appropriate translation strategy based on the text’s purpose and the audience’s needs. Similarly, EFL learners must understand the purpose and audience of a TL text to select the appropriate vocabulary and form. In both translation and foreign language learning, learners and translators are creative participants. Translators are seen as active creators of a target text, not just language converters, and similarly, language learners are encouraged to be creative mediators. Teachers should guide students to discover the skopos behind texts, helping them understand the needs and expectations of the target audience. The aim is to foster learners' intrinsic motivation and help them become confident, creative, and effective communicators in the TL.

Figure 3: Language Learning (example in Spanish)

Skopos pertains to the goal or role that the translation is meant to serve. This aim influences the strategies and decisions in translation. Translators are regarded as intermediaries among cultures, and their primary duty is to modify the message for the intended audience, making sure it meets the goals and expectations of that audience. For instance, a corporate document might necessitate formal language and precision, whereas a literary piece may emphasize artistic expression and the preservation of cultural subtleties. As per Skopos Theory, the translator's function extends beyond merely converting words from one language to another. The translator needs to interpret the text while considering the context, the audience, and the purpose for which the translation is intended. The theory urges the translator to focus on cultural significance. For instance, in translating a marketing advertisement, the translator might have to modify cultural references, idioms, or humor to ensure the message connects with the intended culture. The functional perspective in Skopos Theory emphasizes that translation is not a robotic or literal procedure. In contrast, translation is fluid and must be modified to meet the cultural and communicative requirements of the intended audience. The theory views translation as a mediating act, in which the translator connects cultural disparities by interpreting the linguistic material along with its cultural background. This method is especially important in cross-cultural communication, where the translator needs to balance precision with cultural sensitivity. Skopos Theory prioritizes the target culture more than the source culture. 

This indicates that the translation must better meet the needs and expectations of the target audience instead of attempting to retain every aspect of the original text. In the context of translating a fairy tale, a translator may modify cultural aspects, like characters, locations, or customs, to match the values and expectations of the target audience, rendering the story more recognizable and relatable. While Skopos Theory supports the adaptability of the translation process, ethical issues arise, especially when bridging cultural divides, translators need to manage possible biases or inaccuracies when modifying texts. This necessitates an awareness of the socio-political environments of both the originating and receiving cultures. Skopos Theory has significantly impacted areas such as advertising, where translation needs not just linguistic precision but also the cultural modification of marketing messages. The theory’s utility extends to legal and diplomatic documents, where the aim might be to shape policy, create agreements, or uphold neutrality, necessitating thoughtful attention to language, tone, and cultural nuances. 

Figure 4: Braille System.

Translation Strategies in light of Skopos Theory

Translation studies focus on the shift from a purely linguistic focus to a broader understanding that incorporates cultural, social, and communicative factors. This change, referred to as the "cultural turn", emerged in the late 20th century, emphasizing the importance of the target culture and the function of the target text in the translation process, rather than just the fidelity to the source text. Scholars like Even-Zohar and Toury contributed to this shift by introducing cultural studies perspectives in translation. The Skopos Theory emphasizes the importance of the translation brief guidelines provided by the commissioner of the translation that outlines the purpose and context of the translation. Based on these guidelines, the translator can choose strategies and methods that suit the function of the target text. It also highlights the role of the translator as an expert who can adopt different strategies such as domestication, that is adapting the text to the target culture, or foreignization, which means preserving foreign elements in the target text. Additionally, Vinay and Darbelnet's model of translation strategies includes direct (borrowing, calque, and literal translation) and oblique (transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation) strategies (1958). These strategies help the translator make decisions on how to transfer the meaning and style of the source text to the target language effectively.

A study by Dafaalla (2024) investigates the translation strategies used in two Arabic versions of Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy, with a focus on Skopos Theory. The primary aim is to examine whether the translation strategies are aligned with the intended purpose of the target texts. The research questions explore the alignment between source and target texts' skopos, the strategies employed, and their appropriateness in fulfilling the target texts' purpose. This descriptive study uses both qualitative and quantitative methods, utilizing Vinay and Darbelnet's translation strategy taxonomy for a systematic analysis. It compares one source text, the English translation of Anna Karenina, with two Arabic translations by Emil Bidas and Siah Aljahim, each created for different purposes and audiences. The study focuses on the first chapter of the novel, with a detailed examination of translation procedures. The research involves examining the prefaces of the two target texts to identify the skopos of each translation and how they reflect different cultural and educational objectives. In the first target text, oblique translation strategies dominate particularly adaptation and omission, reflecting a strong focus on the target culture and educational purpose. In the second target text, direct translation strategies prevail, with literal translation and borrowing being the most common, demonstrating a more source-oriented approach. The findings suggest that each translation’s strategies reflect the intended function and target audience, aligning with the Skopos Theory.

Skopos Theory in Marketing Translation

This section explores Skopos Theory and its relevance to the translation of advertisements. Skopos Theory, focusing on the aim of translation, comprises three main principles. The first one is the main point of the theory, which as previously mentioned asserts that the translation must be directed by its intended aim, indicating that the purpose shapes the whole translation procedure. The second one is the coherence principle, which means that the translation must be logical and comprehensible within the context and culture of the target language. The third one is the loyalty principle, meaning that the translation should stay true to the original text, though the level of loyalty varies depending on the translation's objective. 

Marketing and advertising, for instance, are distinct from other forms of translation because their goal is to convince and affect consumers' actions. Effective advertising translation necessitates striking a balance between fidelity to the source text and adapting the message to fit the cultural standards of the target language. Advertising and marketing translation serves as an influential communication resource for promotion. It simultaneously aims to create a strong impact on consumers and elicit behavioral reactions. Promotional messages are brief, attention-grabbing, and occasionally overstated to evoke a powerful emotional response. Regarding translation strategies, advertisements typically necessitate adaptability and innovation because of cultural variations. The three methods of advertising or marketing translation are transliteration, literal translation, and free translation. Transliteration preserves the pronunciation of brand names. Literal translation maintains the original meaning, while free translation, particularly with culturally unique ads, is essential to accurately communicate the message and intention. 

Figure 5: Marketing/Advertising Translation Example.

Skopos Theory in marketing translation highlights that the aim of the translation must direct the approach taken. In marketing, the objective is to modify the message so that it aligns with the cultural background of the target audience instead of merely translating word-for-word. This theory provides creative flexibility in translation, prioritizing the attainment of marketing objectives such as changing behavior or increasing brands' attractiveness. Marketing and advertising translation is a goal-oriented translation, meaning that the translation must fulfill particular marketing aims, such as convincing or educating the audience. This kind of translation involves cultural adaptation. The translation must take into account local cultural norms and values to guarantee that the message is impactful and appealing. Additionally, marketing and advertising translation require flexibility. Translators have the freedom to adjust wording or structure to meet the target audience's preferences, occasionally favoring emotional resonance over literal translation. Essentially, Skopos Theory guarantees that marketing translations are successful by modifying content to produce the intended effect in a culturally appropriate manner.

Skopos Theory and Bilingualism

Bilingualism, defined as the capability to proficiently utilize two or more languages, is a crucial aspect of translation, and it engages with Skopos Theory in multiple significant ways. The connection between them illustrates how bilingual translators navigate between languages and cultures to produce translations that meet particular communicative purposes. According to Skopos Theory, the translator is regarded as a proactive participant who interprets and re-contextualizes the source material to optimally fulfill the translation's intended purpose. The bilingual translator must have a profound understanding of the source language and select suitable linguistic structures and cultural aspects for the target language. Translators' bilingualism allows them to traverse both linguistic and cultural subtleties between the source and target languages, guaranteeing that the translation meets its intended purpose. Translation through bilingualism facilitates cultural mediation. A translator proficient in both languages can identify idiomatic phrases, culturally unique references, and social customs in both the source and target cultures. Skopos Theory motivates translators to modify cultural aspects according to the translation's intended purpose. For instance, a bilingual translator may opt to substitute culturally unique humor in the original text with something more familiar to the target audience, thereby promoting improved communication and cultural comprehension. The skopos denotes the objective of the translation. A bilingual translator will employ various translation strategies based on their comprehension of both languages, prioritizing according to the context and the desired outcome. In bilingual settings, the translator may opt to alter the structure, word choice, or even the tone of the translation according to the target audience's expectations. For instance, a bilingual translator handling a technical manual may opt for formal, exact wording to ensure clarity, whereas a translator dealing with a literary piece might prioritize maintaining the emotional impact of the original text. 

Figure 6: Bilingualism Representation in Advertising (English-Japanese).

In Skopos Theory, the intended audience is vital in influencing translation decisions. A bilingual translator needs to take into account the language skills and cultural context of the intended audience when deciding how to convey the original text. When the audience is bilingual or possesses advanced skills in both languages, the translator might keep more of the original cultural references or language features. On the other hand, if the audience is monolingual or less acquainted with the source culture, the translator might implement more significant adaptations to guarantee that the translation fulfills its intended purpose. Bilingualism is not merely a fixed ability; it is an adaptable and evolving asset that provides flexibility in translation. Translators often do not directly convert a single word or phrase from the source language into the target language; instead, they interpret the meaning and adjust it based on the cultural context and the communicative purpose of the translation. This fluidity is in line with Skopos Theory’s emphasis on functional translation. For instance, a bilingual translator might use a metaphor in the target language that conveys the same meaning as the source metaphor, even if it is not a direct linguistic equivalent. The act of translating between languages involves negotiation, as bilingual translators make decisions about which meaning or interpretation to prioritize based on their understanding of both languages and cultures. In this context, bilingualism is crucial for maintaining the integrity of the message, especially when translating texts that involve power dynamics, such as legal, political, or diplomatic documents. 

Skopos Theory enables translators to craft the result according to specific goals while interpreting meaning. For instance, a bilingual translator handling a legal document needs to ensure that the translation accurately reflects the intended legal meanings in the target language, while also preserving the document's purpose and effectiveness. In multilingual settings, where the translator could be operating across multiple languages, bilingualism can provide clear benefits. The translator can utilize their understanding of various languages to gain a deeper comprehension of the source text and choose the most suitable methods to cater to the target culture's requirements. For example, a bilingual translator might incorporate linguistic features from a third language while translating between two languages if it suits the purpose of the translation, like in a multicultural marketing effort. 

A bilingual translator involved in a marketing campaign must not only convert the language but also guarantee the message is culturally suitable. If a product's advertising tagline is effective in the source culture but carries unintended meanings in the target culture, the translator should modify the tagline to ensure it aligns with the intended skopos of inspiring potential buyers. In literary translation, being bilingual is essential for conveying the original work's aesthetic and emotional effects. A translator might modify metaphors, cultural allusions, and stylistic features to maintain the emotional tone and literary essence, making sure that the target audience feels the same impact and connection as the original readers. In legal translation, being bilingual facilitates accuracy and precision in conveying legal concepts across two different legal systems. The translator needs to ensure that the translation conforms to the legal standards and customs of the target culture, achieving the goal of effectively conveying legal processes.

Figure 7: Advertising Translation in Japan.

Conclusion

Skopos Theory serves as an essential resource in cultural mediation because it prioritizes the impact of a message within the target culture over a rigid, literal translation. This method facilitates enhanced flexibility in dealing with cultural variances and guarantees that the translation is not only precise in wording but also in its cultural significance. A comprehensive grasp of both source and target cultures is crucial for effective mediation. Skopos Theory and bilingualism are interconnected, as bilingualism enables translators to act as cultural mediators who interpret and adapt texts based on specific communicative purposes in diverse cultural contexts. The flexibility provided by bilingualism is essential for translators to make informed decisions aligned with the translation's purpose, ensuring the final product is precise and culturally appropriate. In translating literary works, legal documents, or marketing materials, a bilingual translator's ability to navigate between languages and cultural contexts is crucial for fulfilling the translation's intended goal.

Furthermore, Skopos Theory emphasizes the importance of the purpose of a translation, particularly in cultural mediation, where the translator adapts cultural references, norms, and values to fit the target context. Translators may adjust source culture elements, such as idioms or references, to make the content more accessible to the target audience and they prioritize the needs of the target audience, modifying or omitting parts of the source text that may not be relevant or appropriate. Translation can introduce the target culture to the source culture, such as by explaining foreign concepts to other audiences.

In conclusion, Skopos Theory helps to address the complexities of bilingual translation by focusing on the functional aspects of translation. Bilingual translators adjust the language register based on the text's function and the target audience, whether formal or informal, and navigate linguistic differences to ensure the message is preserved while adapting to the target culture's nuances. Translators can use techniques like code-switching and interlingual and intercultural mediation, guided by the translation’s purpose. Skopos Theory favors the functional purpose of a translation over strict adherence to the source text's form, allowing for cultural adaptations, such as jokes or expressions. This theory plays a critical role in cultural mediation and bilingualism by allowing flexibility in translation, ensuring that the translated text is both functional and culturally relevant. It helps balance faithfulness to the source text with the need to adapt for the target audience.

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Figure 2. Pexels. Language Learning in a Classroom (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es

Figure 3. Pexels. Language Learning (example in Spanish) (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es

Figure 4. Pexels. Braille System (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es

Figure 5. Pexels. Marketing/Advertising Translation Example (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es

Figure 6. Pexels. Bilingualism Representation in Advertising (English-Japanese) (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es

Figure 7. Pexels. Advertising Translation in Japan (2024). https://www.pexels.com/es