top of page
Ewan Waugh

Adapting the EU's Transport to Climate Change


"What you do makes a difference, and you have to decide what kind of difference you want to make." — The world-renowned zoologist, primatologist, and anthropologist Dame Jane Morris Goodall DBE (b. 1934).

Ongoing research, analysis, and debate have found global warming and climate change to be the long-term and unprecedented shift of the earth’s surface temperature and weather patterns, respectively (Hansen et al., 2006; Ring et al., 2012; Wang et al., 2023; Goebbert et al., 2012; Hashim & Hashim, 2016). The effects are “accelerating” (Roggema, 2009, p.2), “dramatic” (Donohoe, 2007, p.44), and “far-reaching” (Scott et al., 2019, p.49). By affecting socio-political, cultural, and economic determinants, it may challenge society’s ability to adapt and expose its vulnerability to growing change (Ford & Ford, 2011, p.3).*


As of 1 January 2020, the European Union (EU) is a supranational union of 27 member states with a population of 448 million (Eurostat, 2020). Climate change is turning the continent into the fastest-warming on the planet (European Environment Agency, 2024, p.11), causing major social, economic, and political consequences for its inhabitants as agriculture, ecosystems, food production, and supply chains are disrupted. Simultaneously, the Union’s urbanisation and population are expected to grow throughout this century, exacerbating the pressure on infrastructure, resources, and public services.


From this, developing sustainable and resilient transportation systems, such as the European Commission’s Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T) initiative, has become critical in preserving the single market and its enshrined freedoms of free movement of goods, services, capital, and persons. However, transport accounts for roughly 30% of the EU’s total greenhouse gas emissions (Dolge et al., 2023), threatening biodiversity, public health, natural landscapes, cultural landmarks, and historic monuments.


This article will discuss the EU’s ambitious commitments to achieve cleaner, sustainable, and carbon-neutral transportation in rail, road, air, and water sectors. To curb transport emissions, which have been increasing since 1990, the EU has set the climate target of a carbon-neutral continent by 2050. Decarbonisation policies include the 2005 European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS), the world’s first international scheme for capping greenhouse gas emissions by companies, and the legally binding European Climate Law, in 2021, enshrining the objectives set out in the earlier European Green Deal which aims to “transform the EU”.


Figure 1: An Athens street filled with cars in 1977. The Acropolis, in the distance, is just one example of the EU's heritage sites threatened by climate change caused by vehicle emissions (UNESCO & Roger, 1977).
Figure 1: An Athens street filled with cars in 1977. The Acropolis, in the distance, is just one example of the EU's heritage sites threatened by climate change caused by vehicle emissions (UNESCO & Roger, 1977).

“Time is running out to avoid the worst impacts of climate change” (Bergamaschi et al., 2019, p.15). The risks of climate change are transboundary and are already affecting the efficiency of the EU’s transport sector, which serves civilian, commercial, and military purposes and is an essential lifeline for moving trade, commerce, and people throughout Europe and beyond. In addition to the road, rail, air, and water networks, distinct transport modes in the EU include metros (France and Italy), trams (Czech Republic and Portugal), trolleybuses (Bulgaria and Greece), and inland shipping (Germany and the Netherlands).


Freedom of movement and increasing integration of EU transport networks means “[t]he responsibility for adapting to climate change is thus shared by member states and the EU” (Lenaerts et al., 2022). Extreme flooding, storms, and heat events are significant risks from climate change, threatening the reliability and safety of Europe’s extensive air, land, and water transportation systems. Sustainable and energy-efficient public transportation is critical in reducing EU greenhouse gas emissions, namely carbon dioxide, by reducing road congestion and urban air pollution. Transport systems, though, are already experiencing delays, disruption, and damage to infrastructure caused by climate change. In Austria and Sweden, for example, failures and delays on the national railway networks have noticeably increased due to adverse weather events (Palin et al., 2021; Palmqvist & Ochsner, 2023). In a 2024 report, the market research firm Berg Insight AB highlighted the importance of public transportation systems before the COVID-19 restrictions in 2019, when approximately 60 billion passenger journeys occurred in Europe (Jansson, 2024). The public’s reliance on these networks is also demonstrated by the 7.3 billion railway passengers alone in 2022 (Eurostat, 2024, p.17) and the 32.1 billion bus passengers annually (Pietrzak & Pietrzak, 2020).


In 2021, the EU adopted the European Climate Law (Regulation (EU) 2021/1119) (ECL), a framework for Europe to achieve climate neutrality by 2050 (Regulation (EU) 2021/1119). Several EU Member States have their own legally binding climate documents (Kulovesi et al., 2024), but the ECL established collective targets for all Member States to meet. While it outlines legal requirements for emission reduction by transport, the specific measures for a sustainable, efficient, and resilient system are set out in the European Commission’s European Green Deal (EGD) of 2020, which mandated the ECL to deliver these proposals (European Commission, 2019). Furthermore, the EU ETS has been incorporated by the EGD and since January 2024 has expanded to include shipping emissions.


Figure 2: The picturesque Brenner Railway in Austria. Mudslides, caused by torrential rain, in August 2023 affected train services on the transalpine line (Liberaler Humanist, 2018).
Figure 2: The picturesque Brenner Railway in Austria. Mudslides, caused by torrential rain, in August 2023 affected train services on the transalpine line (Liberaler Humanist, 2018).
EU Climate Initiatives for Transport

The EGD has been described as an “environmental-centric industrial revolution” (Verschuur & Sbrolli, 2020, p.284) to radically decarbonise the EU’s economy to create a sustainable and resource-efficient society. Its historical significance as the foundation for Europe to be the world’s first carbon-neutral continent by 2050 (Wolf et al., 2021) and creating a circular economy by decoupling economic growth from the use of ecological resources (Almeida et al., 2023), have made this “a new era for European Union policies” (Moreira-Dantas et al., 2023). The decarbonisation agenda has sweeping implications for the EU’s transport, the only economic sector since 1990 to see emissions increase (Andrés & Padilla, 2018; Sporkmann et al., 2023). Fossil fuel consumption has been identified as the cause (Dolge et al., 2023), most of which is imported (Rokicki et al., 2023). EU road transport, such as cars and vans, is the biggest emitter of greenhouse gases, followed by aviation (13.9%) (Pang & Chen, 2023) and shipping (11%) (Marrero & Martínez-López, 2023) of the transport sector’s total emissions. Europe’s railways are the lowest emitters with less than 1%.


The EGD and ECL aim to transform the polluting transport sector into a clean, efficient, and sustainable entity by reducing emissions by 90% relative to 1990, but without jeopardising the economic growth of the Union. All modes of transport are affected by the emission and infrastructure proposals to achieve a carbon-neutral EU by 2050. A key objective of the EGD is the European Commission’s multimodal Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T), adopted in 1990, to construct a series of extensive road, rail, air, and water networks across Europe to strengthen the integration of the single market (Stasinopoulos, 1995; Martín, 2011). Since 2013, this collaborative project between Member States has resulted in the creation of nine Core Network Corridors (CNCs) stretching west to east, from Portugal’s Atlantic coast to the Baltic Sea, and north to south, from the north of Norway to Malta (Weenen et al., 2016). Climate change, though, has changed the focus from interconnectivity to a form of collective resilience to ensure the exchange and trade of energy, goods, and services of the world’s largest trading block continue as extreme weather events increase. The scale and scope of the TEN-T have made it essential for the success of the EGD and the future resilience of the Union.


Figure 3: The European Commission president, Ursula von der Leyen, photographed in January 2024, described the European Green Deal as Europe’s “man on the moon” moment in December 2019 (Licoppe & European Union, 2024).
Figure 3: The European Commission president, Ursula von der Leyen, photographed in January 2024, described the European Green Deal as Europe’s “man on the moon” moment in December 2019 (Licoppe & European Union, 2024).
Sector-Specific Goals for Sustainable Transport

Rail

While railways raise environmental concerns over noise, vibrations, and toxic emissions (Brtnický et al., 2022; Milewicz et al., 2023), they are Europe’s least polluting mode of transport (Haunold, 2020). An efficient and electrified system is fundamental to reducing the EU’s emissions (UIC & CER, 2015; Fonseca-Soares et al., 2024). Initiatives in the EGD include infrastructure upgrades, such as digitalisation to increase the reliability of services, and investing in high-speed connections to double traffic by 2030 (Montero et al, 2021; Zhang et al., 2024). Despite the COVID-19 fallout on the travel and tourism industries, the railway’s sustainability status was promoted in 2021 when the European Commission declared the year the European Year of Rail.


The EGD recognises railways as the most sustainable freight carrier for economic growth, as opposed to the current use of the road (European Commission, 2019). Depending on freight volume, rail transport can be more costly than road use, but increasing international trade and improved connections have led to a global increase in long-distance shipping by rail, especially the surge in China-Europe freight railway services (Lasserre et al., 2020; Wang et al., 2021) which has strengthened Europe’s status as one of China’s biggest trading partners.


Today, 60% of the EU’s mainline railway system is electrified (Chamaret et al., 2023). Continued electrification is part of the EGD’s decarbonisation plan, which “not only contributes to climate change mitigation but also improves air quality and reduces noise pollution in urban areas near railway lines” (Fonseca-Soares et al., 2024). The innovations in railway sustainability are influencing the other transport sectors.


Figure 4: The EU's nine multimodal Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T) corridors as of July 2024 (European Commission, 2024).
Figure 4: The EU's nine multimodal Trans-European Transport Network (TEN-T) corridors as of July 2024 (European Commission, 2024).
Road

As of 2020, roughly 73,000 km of motorway covers the 27 member states of the EU (Ignatov, 2024). It is a system used by approximately 282 million road vehicles (cars and vans) (Mulholland et al., 2022; European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association, 2024) that rely on imported oil from the United States for their combustion engines (Eurostat, 2024, July). Before it invaded Ukraine in February 2022, Russia had been the largest exporter of fossil fuels to the EU (Perdana, 2022), forcing the EU to quickly diversify its energy sources and invest in long-term renewable alternatives (the REPowerEU Plan).


The EU's transport is the main consumer of its imported oil (Rokicki et al., 2023), with road vehicles using most of the supplies (Transport and Environment, 2022). The EGD aims to green the road sector, the most polluting of the Union's transport modes (Sporkmann et al., 2023), and curb its energy dependence on fossil fuels by accelerating the shift to electric passenger and freight vehicles. The ambitious proposal includes investing in road and recharging infrastructure, adopting strict zero-emission targets (albeit from 2035), and increasing alternative energy supplies (Tamba et al., 2022; Tsiropoulos et al., 2022).


Although reflecting the “far-reaching” initiatives of the EGD (Verschuur, 2020), unlike rail, air, and water transportation, road vehicles are a reflection of personal choice and independence and pose a challenge for a transition to more sustainable public transportation use: “An understanding of the factors that affect mode choice is essential to the promotion of more sustainable behaviour” (Corpuz, 2007).


Figure 5: European road E77 in Slovakia. In the European Union, road vehicles are the biggest consumer of oil and emitter of greenhouse gases in the transport sector (Zapletal, 2023 [cropped]).
Figure 5: European road E77 in Slovakia. In the European Union, road vehicles are the biggest consumer of oil and emitter of greenhouse gases in the transport sector (Zapletal, 2023 [cropped]).
Air

After road transport, the aviation sector generates the most emissions in the EU (Carbon Market Watch, 2021), which have doubled since 1990 (Avogadro & Redondi, 2024). This rise, attributed to the growth in low-cost airlines and passenger demands for cheaper air travel, has raised concerns over pollution and energy security. Since the end of COVID-19 restrictions, air passenger numbers have continued to increase across the EU (Eurocontrol, 2024).


A cornerstone of EU aviation sustainability is ReFuelEU Aviation, which forms part of the EGD (Bullerdiek et al., 2021). The initiative proposes the sector incorporate Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs), produced from renewable resources, in phases from 2025 until 2050 into existing fossil fuels to reduce emissions of an expanding industry (Alsulaiman, 2024; Avogadro & Redondi, 2024).


The introduction of clean fuel coincides with the investment in digitalisation to monitor Europe’s air quality (European Commission, 2019) and the development of zero-emissions aircraft (Fetting, 2020). However, the challenges of decarbonising and modernising this substantial sector in employment and profitability are expected to cost billions of Euros, resulting in increased travel and freight costs and reduced flight numbers (Finger et al., 2021).


Figure 6: Electric aircraft (pictured) is just one solution, as part of the European Green Deal, to create a sustainable aviation sector (Andrejcheck, 2020).
Figure 6: Electric aircraft (pictured) are just one solution to creating a sustainable aviation sector, as part of the European Green Deal (Andrejcheck, 2020).
Water

The EU shipping sector is one of the largest fleets in the world and is responsible for approximately 68% of its freight (Eurostat, 2023).


Air pollution caused by burnt fuel is particularly harmful to coastal communities close to shipping lanes (Jonson et al., 2020). In January 2024, the EU ETS was extended to cover ships of any nationality above 5,000 gross tonnage entering the EU (Flodén et al., 2024). Future extensions of the trading system will cover specialised offshore vessels (Transport and Environment, 2023) and those with a gross tonnage of less than 5,000 (Goyal & Llop, 2024).


Shipping emissions are difficult to calculate (varying tonnage, cargo, and ship sizes, for example) (Adamowicz, 2022) and to accurately geographically locate (Christodoulou & Cullinane, 2023). Still, the decarbonisation of the shipping sector - “long largely evaded climate policy” (Zetterberg et al., 2022, p.5) - represents a new phase in the EU’s determination of a carbon-neutral continent by 2050.


The scale of the proposals for radically transforming and modernising transportation places the EU at the forefront of climate change action and also shows the potential of ambitious policies when there is political will and significant investment in research and development. As the world’s largest trading bloc, the EU’s European Green Deal and legally binding Climate Law to decarbonise transport have the potential to not only significantly transform multiple health, social, and economic factors across the supranational uniona unique “opportunity for uniting the European people” (Wolf et al., 2021, p.106)but also influence global climate policy and energy geopolitics. As climate change intensifies and extreme weather events become more frequent, the far-reaching proposals and initiatives could herald a new era in climate governance and international cooperation.



*Previously published in Waugh, E. (2024, April 7). Local Impacts of Global Climate Change. Arcadia. Retrieved from https://www.byarcadia.org/post/local-impacts-of-global-climate-change


Bibliographical references

Adamowicz, M. (2022). Decarbonisation of maritime transport – European Union measures as an inspiration for global solutions? Marine Policy, 145, 105085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2022.105085


Almeida, D.V., Kolinjivadic, V., Ferrando, T., Roy, B., Herrera, H., Gonçalves, M.V., & Hecken, G. Van. (2023). The “greening” of empire: The European Green Deal as the EU first agenda. Political Geography, 105, 102925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2023.102925


Alsulaiman, A. (2024). Navigating Turbulence: Hydrogen’s Role in the Decarbonization of the Aviation Sector. Oxford Institute for Energy Studies. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep56991


Andrés, L. & Padilla, E. (2018). Driving factors of GHG emissions in the EU transport activity. Transport Policy, 61, 60-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2017.10.008


Avogadro, N. & Redondi, R. (2024). Pathways toward sustainable aviation: Analyzing emissions from air operations in Europe to support policy initiatives. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 186, 104121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2024.104121


Bergamaschi, L., Mabey, N., Born, C., & White, A. (2019). Chapter 1: Climate Risk is an Existential Threat to Europe. In Bergamaschi, L., Mabey, N., Born, C., & White, A. (Eds.) Managing Climate Risk for a Safer Future: A New Resilience Agenda for Europe (pp.8-16). E3G. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep21849.6


Brtnický, M., Pecina, V., Juřička, D., Kowal, P., Galiová, M.V., Baltazár, T., & Radziemska, M. (2022). Can rail transport-related contamination affect railway vegetation? A case study of a busy railway corridor in Poland. Chemosphere, 293, 133521. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.133521


Bullerdiek, N., Neuling, U., & Kaltschmitt, M. (2021). A GHG reduction obligation for sustainable aviation fuels (SAF) in the EU and in Germany. Journal of Air Transport Management, 92, 102020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2021.102020


Carbon Market Watch. (2021). How can the EU Emissions Trading System drive

the aviation sector’s decarbonisation? (policy paper). Retrieved from https://carbonmarketwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/How-can-the-EU-Emissions-Trading-System-drive-the-aviation-sectors-decarbonisation_.pdf


Chamaret, A.P., Mannevy, P., Clément, P., Ernst, J., & Flerlage, H. (2023). Analysis, trends and expectations for low carbon railway. Transportation Research Procedia, 72, 2684-2691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2023.11.808


Christodoulou, A. & Cullinane, K. (2024). The prospects for, and implications of, emissions trading in shipping. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 26, 168–184. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41278-023-00261-1


Corpuz, G. (2007). Public Transport or Private Vehicle: Factors That Impact on Mode Choice. Paper presented at 30th Australasian Transport Research Forum.


Dolge, K., Barisa, A., Kirsanovs, V., & Blumberga, D. (2023). The status quo of the EU transport sector: Cross-country indicator-based comparison and policy evaluation. Applied Energy, 334, 120700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2023.120700


Donohoe, M. (2007). Global warming: A public health crisis demanding immediate action. World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues, 11(2), 44–58. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48531779


Eurocontrol. (2024, January 18). European Aviation Overview 2023. Retrieved from https://www.eurocontrol.int/sites/default/files/2024-01/eurocontrol-european-aviation-overview-20240118-2023-review.pdf


European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association (ACEA). (2024, February). Vehicles on European Roads. Retrieved from https://www.acea.auto/files/ACEA-Report-Vehicles-on-European-roads-.pdf


European Commission. (2019, December 11). Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament The European Council, The Council, The European Economic and Social Committee and The Committee of the Regions: The European Green Deal (COM(2019) 640 final). Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/resource.html?uri=cellar:b828d165-1c22-11ea-8c1f-01aa75ed71a1.0002.02/DOC_1&format=PDF


European Environment Agency. (2024). European Climate Risk Assessment (EEA Report 01/2024). Retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/european-climate-risk-assessment/european-climate-risk-assessment-report/view


Eurostat. (2020, July 10). EU population in 2020: almost 448 million. Eurostat. https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/2995521/11081093/3-10072020-AP-EN.pdf/d2f799bf-4412-05cc-a357-7b49b93615f1


Eurostat. (2023, March 16). Majority of EU freight transport in 2021 via sea. Eurostat. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/ddn-20230316-2#:~:text=In%202021%2C%20maritime%20transport%20accounted,recorded%20in%20the%20past%20decade.


Eurostat. (2024). Key Figures on European Transport - 2023 Edition. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/15216629/18384997/KS-HE-23-001-EN-N.pdf/65eb90bc-4856-f6a5-b12f-cf87854587f7?version=4.0&t=1707145038133


Eurostat. (2024, July 1). EU imports of energy products continue to drop. Eurostat. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/w/ddn-20240701-1


Fetting, C. (2020). The European Green Deal (ESDN Report, December). Vienna, Austria: ESDN Office. Retrieved from https://www.esdn.eu/fileadmin/ESDN_Reports/ESDN_Report_2_2020.pdf


Finger, M., Montero, J., & Serafimova, T. (2021, November). Navigating towards the decarbonisation of European aviation. European Transport Regulation Observer, 2021/53. https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/73078/PB_2021_53_FSR.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y


Flodén, J., Zetterberg, L., Christodoulou, A., Parsmo, R., Fridell, E., Hansson, J., Rootzén, J., & Woxenius, J. (2024). Shipping in the EU emissions trading system: implications for mitigation, costs and modal split. Climate Policy, 24(7), 969-987. https://doi.org/10.1080/14693062.2024.2309167


Fonseca-Soares, D. de, Eliziário, S.A., Galvincio, J.D., Ramos-Ridao, A.F. (2024). Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Railways: Systematic Review of Research Progress. Buildings, 14, 539. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings14020539


Ford, J.D. & Ford-Berrang, L. (2011). Introduction. In Ford, J.D. & Ford-Berrang, L. (Eds.) Climate Change Adaptation in Developed Nations: From Theory to Practice (pp.3-21). Retrieved from https://books.google.se/books?hl=en&lr=&id=yE5Bzn4LKnIC&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=Climate+Change+Adaptation+in+Developed+Nations:+From+Theory+to+Practice.&ots=wKj7wo574A&sig=Po-Gptrryqv9_75E-waQIMNTGyg&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Climate%20Change%20Adaptation%20in%20Developed%20Nations%3A%20From%20Theory%20to%20Practice.&f=false


Goebbert, K., Jenkins-Smith, H.C., Klockow, K., Nowlin, M.C., & Silva, C.L. (2012). Weather, climate, and worldviews: The sources and consequences of public perceptions of changes in local weather patterns. Weather, Climate, and Society, 4(2), 132-144. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24907468


Goyal, S. & Llop, M. (2024). The shipping industry under the EU Green Deal: An input-output impact analysis. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, 182, 104035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2024.104035


Hansen, J., Sato, M., Ruedy, R., Lo, K., Lea, D.W., & Medina-Elizade, M. (2006). Global temperature change. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(39), 14288–14293. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30050366


Hashim, J.H. & Hashim, Z. (2016). Climate change, extreme weather events, and human health implications in the Asia Pacific region. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 28(2), 8S-14S. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26686238


Haunold, V. (2020). Decarbonisation: Railways and the European Green Deal. Network Industries Quarterly, 22(2). Retrieved from https://www.network-industries.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Decarbonisation-Railways-and-the-European-Green-Deal.pdf


Ignatov, A. (2024). European highway networks, transportation costs, and regional income. Regional Science and Urban Economics, 104, 103969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2023.103969


Jansson, C. (2024, March). Public Transport ITS in Europe and North America (9th ed.). Gothenburg, Sweden: Berg Insight AB. Retrieved from https://media.berginsight.com/2024/03/15160825/bi-its9-ps.pdf


Jonson, J.E., Gauss, M., Schulz, M., Jalkanen, J.-P., & Fagerli, H. (2020). Effects of global ship emissions on European air pollution levels. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20(19), 11399–11422. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-11399-2020


Kulovesi, K., Oberthür, S., Asselt, H. van, Savaresi, A. (2024). The European Climate Law: Strengthening EU Procedural Climate Governance? Journal of Environmental Law, 36, 23-42. https://doi.org/10.1093/jel/eqad034


Lasserre, F., Huang, L., Mottet, É., & Guill, E. (2020). The emergence of Trans-Asian rail freight traffic as part of the belt and road initiative: Development and limits. China Perspectives, 2 (121), 43–52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26975287


Lenaerts, K., Tagliapietra, S., & Wolff, G.B. (2022). How can the European Union adapt to climate change? Intereconomics, 57(5), 314-322. Retrieved from https://www.intereconomics.eu/contents/year/2022/number/5/article/how-can-the-european-union-adapt-to-climate-change.html


Marrero, Á. & Martínez-López, A. (2023). Decarbonization of Short Sea Shipping in European Union: Impact of market and goal based measures. Journal of Cleaner Production, 421, 138481. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.138481


Martín, J.C. (2011). Transportation changes in Europe. Transportation Journal, 50(1), 109-124. https://doi.org/10.5325/transportationj.50.1.0109


Milewicz, J., Mokrzan, D., & Szymański, G.M. (2023). Environmental impact evaluation as a key element in ensuring sustainable development of rail transport. Sustainability, 15(18), 13754. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813754


Montero, J., Finger, M., Serafimova, T., & EUI (2021, January). European Green Deal: What implications for state aid in the rail sector? European Transport Regulation Observer, 2021/01. Retrieved from https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/69635/PB_2021_01_FSR.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y


Moreira-Dantas, I.R., Martínez-Zarzoso, I., Araujo, M.L.F. de, Evans, J., Foster, A., Wang, X., Thakur, M., Jafarzadeh, S., & Martin, M.P. (2023). Multi-stakeholder initiatives and decarbonization in the European food supply chain. Frontiers in Sustainability, 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/frsus.2023.1231684


Mulholland, E., Miller, J., Bernard, Y., Lee, K., & Rodríguez, F. (2022). The role of NOx emission reductions in Euro 7/VII vehicle emission standards to reduce adverse health impacts in the EU27 through 2050. Transportation Engineering, 9, 100133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.treng.2022.100133


Palin, E.J., Oslakovic, I.S., Gavin, K., & Quinn, A. (2021). Implications of climate change for railway infrastructure. Wires Climate Change, 12(5). https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.728


Palmqvist, C.-W., & Ochsner, M. (2023). Train Delays due to Extreme Weather Events in Sweden 2001-2020. Abstract from World Conference on Transport Research, Montreal, Canada. Retrieved from https://lucris.lub.lu.se/ws/portalfiles/portal/152922237/Palmqvist_Ochsner_2023_Train_Delays_due_to_Extreme_Weather_Events_in_Sweden_2001_2020.pdf


Pang, S. & Chen, M.-C. (2023). The EU emissions trading system and airline low-carbon transition: A game-theoretic approach. Journal of Air Transport Management, 110, 102407. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0969699723000509


Perdana, S., Vielle, M., & Schenckery, M. (2022). European economic impacts of cutting energy imports from Russia: A computable general equilibrium analysis. Energy Strategy Reviews, 44, 101006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esr.2022.101006


Pietrzak, K. & Pietrzak, O. (2020). Environmental effects of electromobility in a sustainable urban public transport. Sustainability, 12(3), 1052. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12031052


Regulation (EU) 2021/1119 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30 June 2021 establishing the framework for achieving climate neutrality and amending Regulations (EC) No 401/2009 and (EU) 2018/1999 (‘European Climate Law’).


Ring, M.J., Lindner, D., Cross, E.F., & Schlesinger, M.E. (2012). Causes of the global warming observed since the 19th Century. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, 2(4), 401-415. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/acs.2012.24035


Roggema, R. (2009). Adaptation to Climate Change: A Spatial Challenge. Retrieved from https://www.google.se/books/edition/Adaptation_to_Climate_Change_A_Spatial_C/CB3P4Alh-vwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=Adaptation+to+Climate+Change:+A+Spatial+Challenge+roggema+google+books&printsec=frontcover


Rokicki, T., Bórawski, P., & Szeberényi, A. (2023). The impact of the 2020–2022 crises on EU countries’ independence from energy imports, particularly from Russia. Energies, 16(18), 6629. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16186629


Scott, D., Hall, C., & Gössling, S. (2019). Global tourism vulnerability to climate change. Annals of Tourism Research, 77, 49-61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2019.05.007


Sporkmann, J., Liu, Y., & Spinler, S. (2023). Carbon emissions from European land transportation: A comprehensive analysis. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 121, 103851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2023.103851


Stasinopoulos, D. (1995). Common Transport Infrastructure Policy and the Development of Trans-European Networks. Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, 29(2), 220–222. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20053076


Tamba, M., Karuse, J., Weitzel, M., Ioan, R., Duboz, L., Grosso, M., & Vandyck, T. (2022). Economy-wide impacts of road transport electrification in the EU. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 182, 121803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121803


Transport and Environment. (2022, March 7). How Russian oil flows to Europe: Imports, dependency, trade value, ports and pipelines. Transport and Environment. Retrieved from https://www.transportenvironment.org/uploads/files/20220303_russian_oil_in_the_EU.pdf


Transport and Environment. (2023). Modelling The Impact Of FuelEU Maritime On EU Shipping. Retrieved from https://www.transportenvironment.org/uploads/files/FuelEU-Maritime-Impact-Assessment.pdf


Tsiropoulos, I., Siskos, P., & Capros, P. (2022). The cost of recharging infrastructure for electric vehicles in the EU in a climate neutrality context: Factors influencing investments in 2030 and 2050. Applied Energy, 322, 119446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119446


UIC & CER. (2015, September). Rail Transport Facts and Figures. Paris, France: UIC-ETF. Retrieved from https://uic.org/IMG/pdf/facts_and_figures_2014_v1.0-4.pdf


Verschuur, S. & Sbrolli, C. (2020). The European Green Deal and state aid: The guidelines on state aid for environmental protection and energy towards the future. European State Aid Law Quarterly, 19(3), 284-289. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48685810


Wang, A., Grossouvre, H. de, & Carpentier, C. (2021). The boom In Eurasian railway freight: Its economic and geopolitical consequences. World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues, 25(2), 40–47. https://www.jstor.org/stable/48622919


Wang, L., Wang, L., Yang, L., & Wang, J. (2023). A century-long analysis of global warming and earth temperature using a random walk with drift approach. Decision Analytics Journal, 7, 100237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dajour.2023.100237


Weenen, R.L. van, Burgess, A., & Francke, J. (2016). Study on the implementation of the TEN-T regulation – the Netherlands case. Transportation Research Procedia, 14, 484 – 493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2016.05.101


Wolf, S., Teitge, J., Mielke, J., Schütze, F., & Jaeger, C. (2021). The European Green Deal – more than climate neutrality. Intereconomics, 56(2), 99-107. Retrieved from https://www.intereconomics.eu/contents/year/2021/number/2/article/the-european-green-deal-more-than-climate-neutrality.html


Zetterberg, L., Rootzén, J., Mellin, A., Hansson, J., Fridell, E., & Flodén, J. (2022). Policy Brief: Shipping in the EU ETS. IVL Svenska Miljöinstitutet/Swedish Environmental Institute. Retrieved from https://www.ivl.se/download/18.1ee76657178f8586dfcd5c2/1621949838330/Shipping_in_EU_ETS_final.pdf


Zhang, Y., Hu, R., Chen, R., Cai, D.-L., & Jiang, C. (2024). Competition in cargo and passenger between high-speed rail and airlines — considering the vertical structure of transportation. Transport Policy, 151, 120-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2024.04.006

Visual sources

Comments


Commenting has been turned off.
Author Photo

Ewan Waugh

Arcadia _ Logo.png

Arcadia has an extensive catalog of articles on everything from literature to science — all available for free! If you liked this article and would like to read more, subscribe below and click the “Read More” button to discover a world of unique content.

Let the posts come to you!

Thanks for submitting!

  • Instagram
  • Twitter
  • LinkedIn
bottom of page