Rerum Novarum: Then and Now

Introduction

On Thursday 8th May 2025, white smoke from the Sistine Chapel informed the world that the Conclave convened upon the death of Pope Francis had elected a new Pope. Shortly afterwards, Cardinal Dominique François Joseph Mamberti walked out onto the loggia, the balcony of St Peter’s Basilica, to inform the world that Cardinal Robert Francis Prevost had been elected and had taken the name Pope Leo XIV. In his address to the College of Cardinals on Saturday 10th May 2025, he revealed that one of the reasons for his choice of name was to honour Pope Leo XIII (Merlo, 2025), and in particular his encyclical Rerum Novarum.

Addressing the College of Cardinals on the 10th May 2025, Pope Leo XIV outlined his decision as such:

“Sensing myself called to continue in this same path, I chose to take the name Leo XIV. There are different reasons for this, but mainly because Pope Leo XIII in his historic Encyclical Rerum Novarum addressed the social question in the context of the first great industrial revolution. In our own day, the Church offers to everyone the treasury of her social teaching in response to another industrial revolution and to developments in the field of artificial intelligence that pose new challenges for the defence of human dignity, justice and labour.”

Leo XIV, 2025a

He further described how Pope Leo XIII “sought to promote peace by encouraging social dialogue between capital and labour, technology and human intelligence, and different political cultures and nations” (Leo XIV, 2025b). In an interview following the election of Pope Leo XIV, Dr Don Prudlo discusses how the industrial revolution presented challenges for Pope Leo XIII, and how this can be compared to the defence of human dignity in the face of artificial intelligence and the new digital revolution (Wells, 2025). Prudlo notes that, just as in the late 19th century there was significant urbanization, as people moved from farms to cities, and met with poor living and labour conditions, thwarted by business owners and lured by new political ideologies wanting to overthrow the existing system, Pope Leo XIII sought to reinforce the rights and dignity of the worker, of the human person, of the family (Wells, 2025). In this sense, a new inflection point can be seen, the rise of artificial intelligence and mechanization, of robotics, and what challenges this presents for the dignity of labour – and not just the factory worker of the era of Pope Leo XIII, but the office worker, the programmer, the teacher (Wells, 2025).

In the few weeks since these words, there has already been much speculation about what they could mean going forward, and what the implications of these words and the pope’s choice of name are – not simply for the reign and pontificate of Pope Leo XIV, not just for the Catholic Church, but also for broader discussions surrounding social and political thought, in the context of artificial intelligence.

Who, then, was Pope Leo XIII, what was Rerum Novarum – and, most importantly, what did it say? This piece will begin by introducing the figure of Pope Leo XIII. It will then discuss, in particular, his seminal work, Rerum Novarum. Moving on from this, it will outline some of the broader implications of this text. The discussion over the influence of the text will cover Catholic Social Teachings more widely, and some of the later documents inspired and influenced by his initial writings, as well as the political thought which developed from it. Finally, the article will introduce some ideas as to what these social teachings and their wider influence means in the contemporary period, what current political lines of thinking draw on these traditions, and what this political thought may mean going forwards. What will be seen is a clear strand of thinking – a condemnation of the excesses of both free-market capitalism and socialism, a support for private property, the family, and the freedom of the individual, combined with support for fair wages for workers, subsidiarity, solidarity between employers and employees, support for small businesses, and the rights and dignity of labour.

Pope Leo XIII

Pope Leo XIII reigned as pope from 1878 to 1903, one of the longest pontificates in history. He was born in Carpineto Romano (now Italy, then the Papal States), on the 2nd March 1810 as Gioacchino Vincenzo Raffaele Luigi Pecci and died on 20th July 1903, in Rome (Benigni, 1910; Encyclopædia Britannica, n.d.; New Advent, n.d.). Following the death of Pope Pius IX on 7th February 1878, a conclave was held and then Cardinal Pecci was elected on the third ballot by 44 votes out of 61 (Benigni, 1910; New Advent, n.d.).

He is known, amongst other achievements, for his intellectual renewal of areas such as Thomism, encouraging Biblical studies through Providentissimus Deus (Leo XIII, 1893), his renewed emphasis on the Eastern Rite churches in Orientalium Dignitas and Christi Nomen (Leo XIII, 1894a; 1894b), his Marian devotion through multiple encyclicals on the rosary and, importantly, his improved relations with modern secular states, encouraging coexistence with the world rather than the attitude held by his predecessor, Pope Pius IX, following the loss of the Papal States, of being a prisoner in the Vatican. What he has perhaps best known for, and what the next section shall address, are his social teachings, in particular via his encyclical, Rerum Novarum, on the relations between capital and labour.

Rerum Novarum

The encyclical Rerum Novarum was released on 15th May, 1891 (Leo XIII, 1891). The encyclical title, with the description “On Capital and Labor”, the first heading on the “Right and Duties of Capital and Labor”, means “of new things” or “of revolutionary change”.

This encyclical, as Pope Leo XIV (2025a) observed, was written in the context of the industrial revolution, a changing world in which new ideologies were emerging. On the one hand, unregulated capitalism, in which the dignity of the worker was at risk and the rights of the worker increasingly poor in the name of profit. On the other hand, socialism and communism, a reliance on the state, atheism, a denial of the individual and the family. In this regard, he spoke out in both directions, and walked a new middle way, defending the rights of workers to fair wages and to organise in unions, but also in defence of private property and against new theories emerging, such as economic liberalism and Marxism.

In Rerum Novarum, Pope Leo XIII condemned both socialism and unregulated free market capitalism, pushed and advocated for the right to own private property, endorsed the rights of workers to form unions, and emphasised the mutual duties of both employers and employees. He outlined the rights of workers to a fair wage, safe working conditions, and trade unions. At the same time, he affirmed the rights to property and free enterprise. In this sense, he opposed both atheistic socialism and laissez-faire capitalism.

Figure 1: Canè, Enrico. (1887). Leo XIII. L’Illustrazione Italiana. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Leo_XIII%2C_1887.jpg

Influential in the composition of the encyclical was the German theologian and Bishop of Mainz, Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler (Misner, 1991), and the English Cardinal and Archbishop of Westminster, Henry Edward Manning (Misner, 1991), who himself had gone as far as supporting the London Dock Strike in 1889 (Tregenza, 2021). The encyclical addresses, in particular, the condition of the working class, saying, “In any case we clearly see, and on this there is general agreement, that some opportune remedy must be found quickly for the misery and wretchedness pressing so unjustly on the majority of the working class” (Leo XIII, 1891, 3., para 3).

He notably states:

“Let the working man and the employer make free agreements, and in particular let them agree freely as to the wages; nevertheless, there underlies a dictate of natural justice more imperious and ancient than any bargain between man and man, namely, that wages ought not to be insufficient to support a frugal and well-behaved wage-earner.”

Leo XIII, 1891, 45., para 46

Whilst he views socialism as replacing rights and moral teachings and the family unit with state power, and opposes the destruction of private property, he views economic liberalism and laissez-faire capitalism as purely being interested in money. In this sense, he draws on what may be defined as ‘the common good’. There is, therefore, an expectation of rights and duties in society. Both employers and employees have duties, both groups are protected. Rather than endorsing class conflict, he advocates for class cooperation and social harmony, grounded in justice and mutual respect.

Further Developments

The encyclical Rerum Novarum became the foundational document of what became known as Catholic Social Teachings, of which there is now an entire collection, almost a library of literature. Key amongst these came forty years later. On the 15th May 1931 – forty years to the day – the encyclical Quadragesimo Anno (Pius XI, 1931) was released by Pope Pius XI, its name in Latin, in the fortieth year, indicating the anniversary. Once again, both unrestrained capitalism, and socialism and communism, are condemned as dangers to human freedom and dignity, with the principles of solidarity and subsidiarity instead being emphasised.

On 26th March 1967, the encyclical Populorum Progressio, “On the Development of Peoples” (Paul VI, 1967), was released by Pope Paul VI, emphasising how the world economy should serve the many, not the few, and that “The ultimate goal is a full-bodied humanism” (Paul VI, 1967, 42., para 78). Paul VI also wrote Octogesima Adveniens, an Apostolic Letter released on 14th May 1971, to commemorate the 80th anniversary of Rerum Novarum (Paul VI, 1971).

Figure 2: Piacquadio, Andrea. (2018). Photo of the Dome. https://www.pexels.com/photo/photo-of-the-dome-937690/

Pope John Paul II also wrote a number of encyclicals on this theme. Key amongst them are Laborem Exercens, “on Human Work”, from 14th September 1981; Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, on “The Social Contract”, from 30th December 1987; and Centesimus Annus, from 1st May 1991. In the case of Laborem Exercens and Centesimus Annus, these commemorated the 90th and 100th anniversaries of Rerum Novarum respectively. In the case of Sollicitudo Rei Socialis, this commemorated the 20th anniversary of Octogesima Adveniens.  On 29th June 2009, the encyclical Caritas in Veritate, on “Charity in Truth”, was released by Pope Benedict XVI. The sheer number of encyclicals written which tie in with an anniversary of a previous encyclical, and in particular commemorating an anniversary of Rerum Novarum, highlights its significance as a document.

This is not an exhaustive list of all the encyclicals covering this field, and others have drawn on broader themes such as the sanctity of life or care for the natural environment, which could arguably be included within a broader remit of social teachings. Nonetheless, these examples illustrate how, since the first publication of Rerum Novarum, social teachings of this nature have become a pivotal focus.

Distributism and the Present Political Influence

What, then, can be seen in terms of influences beyond the religious social thinking? This political thought which has subsequently developed in part inspired by these texts has been hugely influential. This has especially been the case with political ideologies which sit as neither capitalist nor socialist, but rather might be defined as Distributist, sometimes alongside a social market economy. One can see concerns surrounding this earlier, such as in the writing of Benjamin Disraeli (1845), but more noticeably following Rerum Novarum through writers such as G. K. Chesterton (1910) and Hillaire Belloc (1912), both drawing on this tradition and critiquing both socialism and the state, and also classical liberalism and laissez-faire capitalism. Instead, they again argue in favour of principles of subsidiarity, of support for the worker and fair wages, for small businesses, for good relations between employer and employee, for the right to form association, and for private property. Belloc (1912), writing The Servile State, was the first to use the term “distributism”. The concept of distributism can also be seen as key to the Catholic Worker Movement (Deines, 2008; Newman, 2015), a pacifist anarchist communitarian Catholic movement, and significant figures such as Dorothy Day, notable for speeches such as in Union Square (Day, 1965), a young bohemian and radical who later embraced faith but never quite lost that radical spirit. Whilst it may not seem obvious that Pope Benedict XVI might praise someone such as Day, he did so in a General Audience on 13th February 2013, commending how she moved away from pure political ideology and Marxism, in a secularised environment, and towards grace and her faith “in a life dedicated to the underprivileged” (Benedict XVI, 2013). She advocated, again, for distributism, for a middle way between capitalism and socialism

Figure 3: Pothen, Dirk. (2025). Apostolic Palace and Colonnade in Vatican City. https://www.pexels.com/photo/apostolic-palace-and-colonnade-in-vatican-city-31741852/

This interest in these social teachings and their further political developments and influences can also be seen in modern political thinking (Howard, n.d.; Cruddas, 2021), on both left and right. This has manifested itself linguistically in terms such as Red Tory (Blond, 2010) and Blue Labour (Glasman, 2022). This drawing together of different political traditions, against both economic liberalism and socialism, and the influence of social teachings including Rerum Novarum and the documents and movements which followed and were inspired by it, can also be seen in discussions surrounding post-liberalism (Pabst, 2021a; 2021b). Whilst all having nuanced interpretations, these various thinkers all share scepticism of pure free market capitalism, economic liberalism, and individualism, but rather emphasise communitarianism, localism, social solidarity, and social conservatism – which is reflected, going back, on left and right, and writers of different religious traditions and none, in the writing of Rerum Novarum. In an age of rupture, where old certainties seem less sure, perhaps a link can be drawn from that first industrial revolution to a new revolution.

Concluding Thoughts

Although the extent of his success in diplomacy is debatable, and it is true that the successes of his writings and initiatives were not immediate, and whilst one could argue that his work on Biblical scholarship or social reform has been surpassed or was overly cautious, through writing such as Rerum Novarum, Pope Leo XIII set the foundations for developments in these fields and was open to a dialogue with the world, not sitting in hostility to it or fear of it. These ideas can be seen in the significant body of subsequent papal documents which draw on Rerum Novarum and the ideas within Catholic social teachings – but they can also be seen in the wider influence of these ideas beyond the Catholic social sphere into broader political thinking. If these are ideas which the new Pope Leo XIV wishes to take forward, and in particular, if he sees a new industrial revolution through AI as being the next great challenge, they will make for fascinating developments. Just as Pope Leo XIII feared the loss of human dignity through the industrial revolution of the 19th century, perhaps Pope Leo XIV will challenge the loss of human dignity, and more than that, the loss of the human mind and human ingenuity, that could be threatened by artificial intelligence. Perhaps as wider thinkers reflect on the implications of a potential new revolution, they will take into account some of the insights from the past which were observed from the first industrial revolution.

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Visual References

Cover: Luna, Sebastian. (2024). Aerial View of St. Peter’s Square in Vatican City. https://www.pexels.com/photo/aerial-view-of-st-peter-s-square-in-vatican-city-28428164/

Figure 1: Canè, Enrico. (1887). Leo XIII. L’Illustrazione Italiana. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Leo_XIII%2C_1887.jpg

Figure 2 Piacquadio, Andrea. (2018). Photo of the Dome. https://www.pexels.com/photo/photo-of-the-dome-937690/

Figure 3: Pothen, Dirk. (2025). Apostolic Palace and Colonnade in Vatican City. https://www.pexels.com/photo/apostolic-palace-and-colonnade-in-vatican-city-31741852/